Scholarly

** Critical Race Theory and How History Functions in African-American Fiction and Narratives **
 * A Brief History of Critical Race Theory: **

Critical Race Theory is a critical framework that emerged within legal studies to explain the failures of the law in combating systemized racism. Critical Race Theory is a broad and evolving discipline that encompasses a wide spectrum of discourse. Although there are contentions among Critical Race theorists on how to dismantle racism, there is agreement that promoting liberal laws and ethics is not enough (Mills 270-2). As long as racism is rampant and ingrained within the social, cultural, and economic fabric here in the United States, liberal and “equitable” laws will continue to suffer from being interpreted and applied with a racist lens. Critical Race Theory is no longer simply a discourse within legal studies, but also a major framework within multiple disciplines, especially education, American studies, African-American studies, and studies of colonialism and imperialism.


 * Why Use Critical Race Theory in Exploring the Importance of History in African-American Narratives and Fiction? **

Critical Race Theory offers us a framework to ascertain the relationship between history and fiction. Critical Race Theory provides valuable insight in to how race functions within society and how to deconstruct racism. In our argument, we stress that history is used within African-American narratives, in part, to confront the atrocities of institutionalized racism and to dismantle racist metanarratives.


 * History and Postmemory **

One of the reasons why history and historical events and experiences (like slavery and segregation) are so prevalent within African-American fictional works is because of the need of the African-American artist to confront her shared collective connection with these experiences. Arlene Keizer explores images of slavery in contemporary African-American artists’ works like Kara Walker and asks, “Can this past ever be put to rest?” (1650). In some ways, this painful past can not be put to rest as long we continually deny and minimize these traumatic events that show how we as Americans have perpetually oppressed one another based upon racial constructions. Keizer draws upon the term “postmemory” coined by Marianne Hirsch to illustrate the power of collective trauma. Hirsch employed postmemory to explain the preponderance of Jewish non-survivors displaying a deep connection (and artistic portrayal) of the Holocaust (1650). Although most American Jews are not survivors of the Holocaust, many still share in experiencing the “cultural or collective trauma” of the Holocaust. The remembrance and affects from this collective trauma, postmemory, affects non-survivors because they identify with those affected who are part of an oppressed group. As Christine demonstrates in her analysis of “Stories That Dance,” fictional art is better at portraying postmemory than actual historical artifacts.


 * History and Storytelling or Narratives **

Historically, the perspective of African-Americans has largely been ignored or reduced to a sole black experience. How is one to argue against these metanarratives regarding race in America? Narratives and storytelling function to confront and dismantle these powerful metanarratives by the dominant culture by presenting another voice. Storytelling is a way to convey a personal and true perspective to the audience. Storytelling can be so convincing because it is subjective and personal. Narratives don’t simply recant events, but they also illustrate how it felt to live through those events. Critical Race Theory values storytelling as way to break down racial barriers. Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F. Tate IV explain how storytelling is useful:

“Historically, storytelling has been a kind of medicine to heal the wounds of pain caused by racial oppression. The story of one’s condition leads to the realization of how one came to be oppressed and subjugated and allows one to stop inflicting mental violence on oneself.” (57)

Therefore, storytelling is cathartic experience for the storyteller. Also, storytelling can heal the wounds of the audience too. If the audience shares a collective trauma with the storyteller, then they will have a similar realization from the postmemory output.



In //Beloved//, Toni Morrison’ protagonist, Sethe, is a composite of Margaret Granger and Gordon. Margaret Granger was an enslaved woman who crossed the Ohio River with her children to escape slavery. When she was hunted down due to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, she killed her young daughter to save the child from a life in bondage. Gordon was an enslaved man who fled to fight in the Civil War. A photograph taken of his back reveals massive scars caused by the whip of an overseer. Abolitionists disseminated this photograph widely. Morrison uses historical events to not only buttress the perspectives she presents in her novel, but also probably as a way for her to cope with these disturbing images and as a way of connecting her readers to these histories that have largely been absent from contemporary History (Keizer 1651-2). Keizer argues that although Morrison bases Sethe’s back on the photograph of Gordon, she shifts “to focus instead on the interiority of those emerging from slavery” (1652). Shauntia explores another portrayal of the image of Gordon's back in her analysis of "Untitled" by Nas.


 * Storytelling as a Function to Manifest History **

Narratives and storytelling are convincing methods of manifesting the truths that are omitted from dominant culture’s metanarratives. History is aided with the use of narratives. Narratives help manifest history by illuminating perspectives of people who in conventional metanarratives are not considered. Histories gain power and veracity by the portrayal of individual perspectives. History is about exploring why events happen, why people act or don’t act, why society functioned as it did, and why it changed or didn’t. History needs to take in to account individuals’ agency and motivations. Narratives offer unique insight into this agency and motivations. In //Soulcatcher//, Charles Johnson explores what the personal motivations behind poet Phyllis Wheatley. Johnson doesn’t give a dry account of who she was and what she did. Instead, he illustrates how she may have grappled with maintaining an audience for publication and aiding her brethren towards liberation (26-31). Theresa illustrates the power of storytelling to expose an erased history in her analysis of the book, //Roots//, by Alexander Haley.




 * Storytelling as a Political Act **

Since storytelling is an influential technique to show a perspective that is missing from society, it can be a political act. Critical Race theorists view storytelling as a political act, because it is a way of challenging the power of race in society. Narratives, then, is a method of “confronting racial injustice” (Price 158). Charles illustrates how narrative in film can be a political act in his examination of the film, Malcolm X. Although Malcolm X received much attention from the media, the press and the United States government attempted to discount his ideas as radical and dangerous philosophy. By showcasing his beliefs and actions in a blockbuster film, the director, Spike Lee, creates an argument that advocates for legitimizing Malcolm X's ideas and actions and treating them with respect.

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In the video, bell hooks spoke on Cultural Criticism & Transformation. She doesn’t mention Critical Race Theory, but she talks about the power of popular culture narratives in illustrating constructions of race, gender, and class. She also has a provoking insight into the formation of entitlement and what that means.


 * Why These Histories Might be Absorbed Easier as Narratives Than “History” **

Since the historical perspectives presented by these African-American writers and artists are not labeled “History,” they are more likely to be funded, supported, and accepted by the establishment. Also, they dismantle racist metanarratives without replacing them with other metanarratives. Instead, by their nature, these narratives manifest that they are perspectives of a multi-perspective experiences.

As explored earlier, the portrayal of postmemory can help heal the audience who share in the collective trauma. Hopefully, if the audience includes members who have inflicted these collective traumas or benefitted from such events, these persons will understand how they have come to “oppress and subjugate” and stop being complicit. The enactment of postmemory may also heal the prejudices and exploitative nature of society. The (unearned) privileged majority is more likely to be open to criticism from narratives and fiction for several reasons. As mentioned earlier, they may be more empathetic to those victimized due to the personal nature of narratives. They will also be less likely to justify their actions / benefits if the acts were committed in the past by their ancestors. They may be more inclined to hear this voice simply because it is one voice and isn’t presented as a metanarrative.



In The Marrow of Tradition, Charles Chesnutt thinly disguises his arguments about the supposed “Wilmington Race Riot of 1898” in his depiction of Wellington. Here, Chesnutt exposes the events as the deliberate and premeditated coup of wealthy, respected, and influential white supremacists. Writing on a few years after the tragedy, it was imperative that Chesnutt write his work as fiction. Due to how closely it follows the actual events, it was highly controversial even as fiction. Also, by using narrative, Chesnutt is more effective at conveying the personal motivations and inner justifications of the differing townsfolk. In this way, he is able to convey the real truth behind how terrible and revolting events like the coup occur.


 * Critical Race Theory and Intersections of Oppression **

Along with analyzing the relationship between race and power, Critical Race Theory prioritizes understanding the intersections between race, gender, class, sexuality, age, and ability. Racial oppression is not experienced in a universal manner, rather than are multiple experiences of racial oppression and they are influenced by other oppressions and unearned privileges. For example womanism is a response to the racial and class privilege that is wielded by some within feminism. An African-American woman experiences being a woman oppressed by patriarchy differently than a white woman does. Therefore, these intersections are more than the sum of their parts. Mary, in her analysis of Richard Nugent, illustrates the unique perspective of a man who is both African-American and gay. His perspective is even more marginalized not just because he is black and gay, but also because he is //both// black and gay.


 * Works Cited **

Chesnutt, Charles W. //The Marrow of Tradition//. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002. Keizer, Arlene R. “Gone Astray in the Flesh: Kara Walker, Black Women Writers, and African American Postmemory.” //PMLA// 123:5 (2008): 1649-1672. PDF. Ladson-Billings, Gloria and William F. Tate IV. “Towards a Critical Race Theory in Education.” //Teachers College Record// 97.1 (1995): 47-68. PDF. Mills, Charles. “Critical Race Theory: A Reply to Mike Cole.” //Ethnicities// 9.2 (2009): 270-81. PDF. Morrison, Toni. //Beloved//. New York, NY: Plume, 1987. Print. Johnson, Charles. “Poetry and Politics.” //Soulcatcher and Other Stories: Twelve Powerful Tales about Slavery//. San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Inc., 1998. Print. Price, Patricia L. “At the Crossroads: Critical Race Theory and Critical Geographies of Race.” //Progress in Human Geography// 34:2 (2010): 147-174. PDF.